Maryam Parvizi; Ghasem Pourhasan
Abstract
The end of Comparative Philosophy is the most important and last point of view regarding this approach. So far, Comparative Philosophy has faced various oppositions, confronting these criticisms, a question will be raised: Are these oppositions against the nature of Comparative Philosophy or due to the ...
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The end of Comparative Philosophy is the most important and last point of view regarding this approach. So far, Comparative Philosophy has faced various oppositions, confronting these criticisms, a question will be raised: Are these oppositions against the nature of Comparative Philosophy or due to the dissatisfaction or ineffectiveness from it? In the present research, by examining the contexts, the causes and reasons for opposition to Comparative Philosophy have been discussed. In this regard, the appearance of Comparative Philosophy, its progress until the new era, and reaching the opposition's point of view will be discussed with the descriptive-analytical method. In this regard, firstly, the views of the Comparative Philosophy opponents and believers of its end, their purpose, and their arguments will be examined. In the following, the origin of Comparative Philosophy and then the major approaches in the new era are presented. Then, by presenting the fourth approach (which provides an independent definition by reviewing the concept of comparative philosophy), an answer will be given to them. The results of the present research show that the opposition to Comparative Philosophy and the belief in its end is based on the lack of correct understanding of Comparative Philosophy and its precise definition and it's not that the nature of Comparative Philosophy faces impossibility and end
sima sadat nour bakhsh
Abstract
Analysis of the epistemological system of Shahab-o-din Sohrewardi (1155-1195 A.D.), the founder of the second field of philosophical thought in the history of Islamic philosophy, is of significant importance. His epistemology analyzes the logical contrast of Peripatetic philosophical system. Sohrewardi's ...
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Analysis of the epistemological system of Shahab-o-din Sohrewardi (1155-1195 A.D.), the founder of the second field of philosophical thought in the history of Islamic philosophy, is of significant importance. His epistemology analyzes the logical contrast of Peripatetic philosophical system. Sohrewardi's theory of science has two parts: in the first part, Sohrewardi criticizes traditional theories of science, specially those that deal with science through definition, sensual perception and primary or basic concepts that precede experience. First he criticizes the structure of Aristotelian "definition" so that this criticism is the first important attempt to indicate the contrast of Aristotelian structure, and it is the first step of formulating Illumination (or Oriental Theosophy). Sohrewardi shows the defects and constraints of "definition" in achieving certainty. According to him, the proposed theories of science, while leading us to an aspect of truth and are not absolutely unreliable, cannot direct us to certainty, nor express the possibility of the reality of science. Sohrewardi not only tries to invent a formal standard for "definition", different from that of the Peripatetic, but also proposes an aspect of "definition" that is the basic constituent of his Illumination theory on the rational structure of science. This fundamental difference states the entirely different perspectives of logical and epistemological principles in philosophy and sets the second part of Sohrewardi's theory, so that in Illumination, supremacy is with intuition and is on the basis of the theory of Observation-Illumination and is formulated according to the knowledge of presence.
Ahmad Ali Heydari; Mohammad Hassan Yaghoubian; Ghasem Pourhassan
Abstract
The aim of this research is to study the nature of intercultural philosophy with a descriptive-analytical approach from the point of view of Ram Adhar Mall, who traveled to the West with an Indian background and founded the Association of Intercultural Philosophy in Germany. Using the relation between ...
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The aim of this research is to study the nature of intercultural philosophy with a descriptive-analytical approach from the point of view of Ram Adhar Mall, who traveled to the West with an Indian background and founded the Association of Intercultural Philosophy in Germany. Using the relation between culture and philosophy, cultural other, overlaps, truth, pluralism, and tolerance, he has developed an intercultural philosophy with an Eastern reading, which, of course, comes from an Indian Dharma as a fact and different names; but he has transcended its spatiality and tried to critique European centralism and inverted Eastern ethnocentrism, speaking of a white philosophy that is inherently devoid of a particular color, language, and race, and has diverse roots in a number of different cultures. Four-dimensional hermeneutics is depicted between Europeans and non-Europeans. Thus, intercultural philosophy is an attitude or moral commitment and leads to a way of life. It also differentiates them based on the common and overlapping structures of cultures and moves towards a polyphonic discourse in the world without absolute self-concept and tries to re-read Indian philosophy in the world discourse. It also seeks an intercultural society and a world with unequal unity.
mohammad zare' pour; mohammad ali hojati
Abstract
Some philosophers apply Gödel incompleteness theorems to show that modeling the mind by means of a machine is not possible. Arguments based on these theorems are called Gödelian arguments in philosophy of mind. In this article, we want to criticize three Gödelian arguments. These arguments ...
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Some philosophers apply Gödel incompleteness theorems to show that modeling the mind by means of a machine is not possible. Arguments based on these theorems are called Gödelian arguments in philosophy of mind. In this article, we want to criticize three Gödelian arguments. These arguments have been presented, respectively, by Rudy Rucker, John Randolph Lucas and Roger Penrose. We try to show that: (a) some parts of Rucker’s argument are and some other parts of it are not sound; (b) Lucas' argument is absolutely failed; and (c) some parts of Penrose’s argument are sound and some other parts of it are doubtful.
amir ehsan karbasi zadeh; meysam mohammad amini
Abstract
Science often seems to issue statements about probability of some occurrence. In this paper, we will take a look at three different interpretations of probability. What all of these interpretations share is that they satisfy the Kolmogorov axioms of probability. Briefly discussing each interpretation ...
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Science often seems to issue statements about probability of some occurrence. In this paper, we will take a look at three different interpretations of probability. What all of these interpretations share is that they satisfy the Kolmogorov axioms of probability. Briefly discussing each interpretation and its problems, we will focus on the subjective or Bayesian interpretation. Many philosophers have tried to understand evidence using probability. When there is uncertainty about a scientific hypothesis, observational evidence can sometimes raise or lower the probability of the hypothesis. Bayesianism is the most available version of this idea. According to the Bayesians, a probability measures a person’s degree of confidence in the truth of some proposition relative to available evidence.
abdollah nasri
Abstract
In moral science, we deal with normative statements (ought and ought not). The analysis of these kinds of statements is one of the most crucial tasks in ethics: To which category of philosophical notions do these statements belong? Whether or not they belong to primitive intelligibles, secondary intelligibles, ...
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In moral science, we deal with normative statements (ought and ought not). The analysis of these kinds of statements is one of the most crucial tasks in ethics: To which category of philosophical notions do these statements belong? Whether or not they belong to primitive intelligibles, secondary intelligibles, or mental considerations? In addition, the analysis of moral statements is another one of main topics in ethics: can we reduce ethical statements to declarative ones or not? Hume's question about the relationship between ' is' statements and 'ought' statements is an important ethical issue which has drawn attention of moral philosophers to for a long time. Some contemporary Islamic philosophers such as Allameh Tabatabei, Motahari, Mesbah Yazdi and Haeri Yazdi have discussed about the mentioned topics in ethics. Among them, Haeri has some specific ideas one of which is that all moral imperatives statements refer to the real state of affairs. In other words, he interprets these statements as a kind of through another necessity. In the mentioned debates, Haeri has important thoughts in common with Allameh Tabatabei, and along side, he is in agreement with Mesbah Yazdi in some respects and in disagreement in some other respects. Larijani has criticized Allameh's, Mesbah's and Haeri's views about the analysis of statements whose stances are discussed in this paper. Hume's view about the relationship between is and ought statements is associated to two main topics in the traditional formal logic. By distinguishing between these two topics, Haeri has suggested his special views regarding the mentioned relationship.
elham kandari; saeed binai motlagh
Abstract
One of the most basic metaphysical doctrines is the "Oneness". We are, in this paper, coming to introduce this doctrine in Aristotle; and, so, at first, we mention basic differences between him and his formers, and distinguish Aristotle's "multiple" view from their "monistic" view. Then, counting the ...
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One of the most basic metaphysical doctrines is the "Oneness". We are, in this paper, coming to introduce this doctrine in Aristotle; and, so, at first, we mention basic differences between him and his formers, and distinguish Aristotle's "multiple" view from their "monistic" view. Then, counting the meanings of "one" in common Greek language, we receive to two kinds of oneness: material and formal. We will see that perfection, oneness, and form are parallel to potentiality, multiplicity, and matter; and oneness, in its foremost sense, is the formal "one", not material; and this formal "one" is the principle of individuality. Finally, we will see that how immovable movers, and most of all the first immovable mover, are abstract individuals and the first "Ones".
Malihe Abouie Mehrizi
Abstract
The present article attempts to answer a crucial question: why does Plato attach such importance to “language”? In many dialogues, such as Theaetetus and Sophist he surveys this subject; and in Cratylus language plays a pivotal role. Moreover the article deals with the inseparable connection ...
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The present article attempts to answer a crucial question: why does Plato attach such importance to “language”? In many dialogues, such as Theaetetus and Sophist he surveys this subject; and in Cratylus language plays a pivotal role. Moreover the article deals with the inseparable connection between metaphysics and language in Plato’s philosophy. The main claim is that this connection is so firm and deep that Plato’s view on language can be seen as dependent on his view on the real entities, namely Forms. Plato criticizes the prevailing theories of his time like “conventionalism” and “naturalism” on the same ground. In other words, while analyzing these two clashing views, Plato shows that the nature of things cannot be discovered through studying their names.
Mohammadreza Esmkhani
Abstract
One of the main issues in explaining the phenomenon of diversity of religions in the world is the issue of religions ranking; i.e. the question of whether religions are essentially comparable or not! And if it is comparable, what is the criterion and criterion of this comparison? It seems that the border ...
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One of the main issues in explaining the phenomenon of diversity of religions in the world is the issue of religions ranking; i.e. the question of whether religions are essentially comparable or not! And if it is comparable, what is the criterion and criterion of this comparison? It seems that the border between two different positions in explaining the phenomenon of religious plurality, namely relativism and religious pluralism, comes from the accuracy of the issue of religions ranking. In this article, we will speak of two main representatives of these two trends by proposing and examining this problem and among the religious relativists we refer to Ernest Troeltsch and to John Hick from religious pluralism. This article seeks to put these two theories together and remind them of their similarities and reveal their fundamental differences. Briefly, it can be noted that the major similarity between Troeltsch and Hick is to rely on cultural categories in the consistency of religious awareness, while the fundamental difference between them is the observation of objectivity or subjectivity in their grading criteria. In the end, Hick claims that although religions are comparable in principle, but practically the result of this comparing is the equivalence of religion’s Truth-claims, while Troeltsch says it's basically impossible to compare religions, اowever, in his original statements, he clearly states that in practice, Christianity is superior to other religions. Of course, in his later remarks, he reviews this result and claims that religions are only relative in absolute terms and he claims absolute religions are relative only.
null null; behzad hassanpour
Abstract
Kant's transcendental ego is the absolute and final subject which constitutes the logical foundation of knowledge and experience. It is completely subjective, and as the most necessary and fundamental element in Kant's epistemology is involved in any judgment, intuition, imagination, synthesis, and category ...
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Kant's transcendental ego is the absolute and final subject which constitutes the logical foundation of knowledge and experience. It is completely subjective, and as the most necessary and fundamental element in Kant's epistemology is involved in any judgment, intuition, imagination, synthesis, and category and, in a word, in any kind of knowledge and experience which occurs in a priori way. One of the most important and fundamental problems arising about transcendental ego is that of its functions. In this article, we have extracted four functions of transcendental ego according to Kant's own viewpoints in CPR which as follows: 1- transcendental ego provides our knowledge with universality. 2- It provides necessity for our knowledge. 3- It makes possible our knowledge. 4-It unifies our knowledge through the process and act of synthesis. Finally, we came to the conclusion that the function of unification is the most important and fundamental function due to fundamentality and importance of the process of synthesis in Kant’s epistemology.
hasan bolkhari
Abstract
East theosophy and west philosophy have some foundatumental topics in common. One of these topics is the unity of existence which is one of the main subjects in Upanishads and appears frequently in Greek philosophy, especially the views of thinkers like Anaxagoras, Plato and Plotinus. Hindu thinkers ...
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East theosophy and west philosophy have some foundatumental topics in common. One of these topics is the unity of existence which is one of the main subjects in Upanishads and appears frequently in Greek philosophy, especially the views of thinkers like Anaxagoras, Plato and Plotinus. Hindu thinkers and Greek philosophers have much in common in the subject of Art and Beauty. The prevailing idea of Mimesis as the essence and nature of Art in views of philosophers like Plato, Aristocrats and in particular, Plotinus appears in Hindu theosophy as the Sadrsya. Likewise, the Sadrsya means resemblance and mimic but the one which concerns heavenly images and upon which rely asceticism, worshiping and particularly, Yoga. This particular approach is largely connected with Plotinus’ ideas in Enneads. He regards Art as the mimic of the sensible images and represents moral and spiritual methods for realizing it. This paper is a comparative study of the views of Ananda Koomara Swamy in explaining and interpreting the theory of Sadrsya and that of the Plotinus regarding Art and the spiritual divine nature of it.
Seyyed Masoud Hosseyni Toushmanlouei; Seyyed Mohammad Reza Beheshti
Abstract
The ‘truth’ in Martin Heidegger’s philosophy is a fundamental theme. From the very beginning of his intellectual career, Heidegger attempted to give a more fundamental notion of truth, and during his philosophical activity he took various steps in this regard. However, he never ceased ...
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The ‘truth’ in Martin Heidegger’s philosophy is a fundamental theme. From the very beginning of his intellectual career, Heidegger attempted to give a more fundamental notion of truth, and during his philosophical activity he took various steps in this regard. However, he never ceased from this basic insight that truth is ἀλήθεια (aletheia): the struggle between concealment and disclosure. In addition, Heidegger believes that in Plato’s philosophy, a transformation has emerged in the essence of truth, so that the truth has become Richtigkeit/correctness. According to Heidegger’s view, this transformation is the source of “Seinsvergessenheit/ forgetfulness of being” and this is the source of various forms of subjectivism and nihilism in the modern age. In contrary, Gadamer argued that Plato actually held the fundamental truth of ἀλήθεια, and that Heidegger’s view that Plato’s thought would inevitably lead to the oblivion of being and modern subjectivity is not correct. Gadamer has various strategies to prove his point of view. In this article, we will consider the status of the idea of the good in the theory of Ideas and the notion of dialectic in Plato’s Seventh Letter, and we will try to illustrate along with Gadamer that there are possibilities in Plato’s thought that can eradicate him from Heidegger’s critique.
Amir Maziar; Mohaddeseh Rabbaninia
Abstract
Hegel believed the Antigone tragedy not only revealed the national spirit of ancient Greece but was indeed the greatest artwork of all time. displaying the “Logic of History”, was the critical role Antigone tragedy played in the phenomenology of spirit from the standpoint of Hegel. This article ...
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Hegel believed the Antigone tragedy not only revealed the national spirit of ancient Greece but was indeed the greatest artwork of all time. displaying the “Logic of History”, was the critical role Antigone tragedy played in the phenomenology of spirit from the standpoint of Hegel. This article will attempt to answer how Hegel reads Antigone's tragedy and how he observes the “Logic of History” in it. Ancient Greek society, In Hegel’s point of view, has constantly been the symbol of “unity of life”. however, Hegel believes that at certain times in history, this unity of ethical life and its state of joy in Greece has been destroyed. Since Hegel believes literary works have historical-cultural implications and considers art and literature as the first medium by which the spirit becomes self-conscious, in the section “True Spirit, ethical Life” from the book Phenomenology of Spirit, he describes the fall of the ethical life of Greek society by reading of the Antigone tragedy. What Hegel understood from the Antigone tragedy was a series of painful conflicts that ensued as a consequence of a contradiction between ethical powers within Greek society. powers that had heretofore been in unreflected unity, but now that their contradictions revealed, the ethical life of society collapsed and the spirit moved to a more rational and liberated stage. These stages are in fact very much the irreversible final course of history toward achieving freedom.
hamidreza rahmani zadeh dehkordi
Volume 10, Issue 40 , January 2015, , Pages 37-62
Abstract
“Modernity; unfinished project” has been one of the most effective articles of the world during the recent three decades and it has been the source of controversis in many different fields of though. But the main question is: Why this paper is so important? And what lessons can be learned ...
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“Modernity; unfinished project” has been one of the most effective articles of the world during the recent three decades and it has been the source of controversis in many different fields of though. But the main question is: Why this paper is so important? And what lessons can be learned from it for writing of scientific articles? Although, the article contains many thought-provoking and informative notes but its prose is in some places, concise, ornate and difficult. It is translated about a decade ago into Persian, and apparently has been done quickly and with little accuracy. Perhaps that is why it needs serious revision with the emergence of many Habermas' sociological and philosophical backgrounds. Therefore, the first purpose of this paper is to provide a conceptual abstract and as much as possible, an accurate and faithful summary of article using two English translations and (when necessary) referring to the original German article. Then, it showes that why this article is important technically by analyzing and abstraction of “Questions”, “ideas”, “theorems” and “assumptions” and how it can provide Criteria for effective, scientific and philosophical writing. و فلسفی هابرماس، نیازمند بازنگری جدی است.
هدف نگارنده از ارائه این مقاله، نخست آن است که با استفاده از دو ترجمهی انگلیسی و (در مواقع ضروری) رجوع به اصل آلمانی مقاله، خلاصهای مفهوم و در حد توان، دقیق و امین از مقاله ارائه دهد و سپس با تجزیهوتحلیل و انتزاع «سؤالات»، «ایدهها»، «تزها» و «مفروضهها» نشان دهد که چرا این مقاله، به لحاظ روشی مهم است و چگونه میتواند معیارهایی برای نگارش مقالات تأثیرگذار علمی و فلسفی در اختیار ما قرار دهد.
manuchehr sanei darrebidi; hoseyn kharazmi
Abstract
One of the most fundamental elements of Nietzsche's thought is the notion of eternal recurrence of the same which he regards himself as the teacher of it. According to this notion, I shall return eternally to this identical and self-same life, in the greatest things and in the smallest, not to a new ...
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One of the most fundamental elements of Nietzsche's thought is the notion of eternal recurrence of the same which he regards himself as the teacher of it. According to this notion, I shall return eternally to this identical and self-same life, in the greatest things and in the smallest, not to a new life or a better or a similar life. Nietzsche takes the eternal recurrence as a test or as a selective principle for life-affirmation and as an antidote to the nihilism following god's demise. In the light of eternal recurrence we can redeem the past and transform every "It was" into "I wanted, It thus" and be succeed in reaching the will to power and saying yes to the world as it is.
zahra Tavakoli; Majid Sadeghi hasan abadi
Abstract
The "Sacred Soul" is a term used by philosophers to often name a person who is severely alike. Mulla Sadra and Qazi Saeed both believe in the connection between this soul and the soul of the Prophet, which necessitates the recognition of its characteristics. In this paper, by direct reference to their ...
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The "Sacred Soul" is a term used by philosophers to often name a person who is severely alike. Mulla Sadra and Qazi Saeed both believe in the connection between this soul and the soul of the Prophet, which necessitates the recognition of its characteristics. In this paper, by direct reference to their works, in the first step, the features of the sacred soul are explained and then, by examining the relation of the holy soul and Prophetic soul, the question of the possibility of access of other human beings to the standard of the soul is evaluated. It must be said that the difference between the ontological and anthropological grounds of Mulla Sadra and Qazi Saeed has led to a difference of opinion between the two thinkers. According to the omnipotence of the existence and the formation of existence, the essential movement and the union of the intelligent and the intelligible ranks the arrogance for a sacred soul from the man that can Conjecture to the soul of the Prophet, but Qazi Saeed who did not accept these bases, reveals the instances of a sacred soul in the universal soul and the soul. Despite this difference in appearance, the relationship of the soul with the soul of the Prophet and other human populations in the thoughts of these two great philosophers is very close, to the extent that their difference of opinion cannot be regarded as a literal contribution of a sacred soul in their philosophical system.
maryam parvizi; Mohammad Ali Ashouri Kisomi
Abstract
At first glance, it seems that we can find similarities between the possible worlds proposed by Lewis and the theory of parallel worlds in physics. Both of these theories point to the possibility of the existence of worlds other than the one we live in. After Everett's theory, physicists’ attention ...
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At first glance, it seems that we can find similarities between the possible worlds proposed by Lewis and the theory of parallel worlds in physics. Both of these theories point to the possibility of the existence of worlds other than the one we live in. After Everett's theory, physicists’ attention was drawn to the notions of the multiverse and parallel universes. Parallel worlds are one of the theories that scientists and researchers in the field of physics are interested in. David Lewis, relying on physicalism and modal realism, is one of the supporters of the theory of possible worlds. In this paper, the foundations of the two theories are explained using the analytical-descriptive method, and then, using the comparative method, Lewis's possible worlds theory and parallel worlds are scrutinized. Both theories accept the existence of other worlds. Lewis's theory has six main features: 1- the existence and reality of possible worlds; 2- the absence of a causal relationship between possible worlds; 3- the similarity of possible worlds to our world and the difference in the content of possible worlds; 4- the impossibility of reducing possible worlds; 5- indexical reality; and 6- the space-time unity of branches in a world and incoherency in time-space relations among worlds. The results of this research show that if parallel universes are confirmed as a scientific fact, then the second, third, and sixth features of Lewis's theory may conflict with physical reality. If there is a contradiction due to the fundamental nature of these features, Lewis's theory of possible worlds will suffer a lot.
nooshafarin shahsavan; mohammad javad safian; gholamali hatam
Abstract
The relation between Art and Truth in the history of western thought has been proposed since the advent of art theory in the Plato and Aristotle era. In the modern era, philosophers have also considered this relation. We know that there was a great deal of separation by Baumgarten, between Truth and ...
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The relation between Art and Truth in the history of western thought has been proposed since the advent of art theory in the Plato and Aristotle era. In the modern era, philosophers have also considered this relation. We know that there was a great deal of separation by Baumgarten, between Truth and Art with the advent of aesthetics in the modern era, and this separation got determined by Kant. But after him, thinkers such as Hegel tried to think about the relation of art and truth again. Of course, Hegel did not explicitly bring up the relationship between Art and Truth, but he considers Art as an appearance of "manifestations of the absolute" and dignity of its realization. Art is the first demonstration of absolute spirit. "What is the relationship between Art and Truth from Hegel's point of view? What is his perception and comprehension of the Truth? And how does he attempt to overcome the complete separation between Art and Truth (with his dialectics, of course) which has been brought by modern aesthetics?", are the main questions of this paper. The method of this research is the interpretative and content analysis based on the works of Hegel, his commentators, and other philosophers (related to the subject).
zohreh abd khodai; hoseyn kalbasi ashtari
Abstract
The concept of time, its existence, ontology, and epistemology are considered as a pivotal philosophical issue from the ancient Greek time up to now. Aristotle explicitly deals with this subject. His notion of time can be also seen in Avicenna’s writings. This point have arisen many questions and ...
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The concept of time, its existence, ontology, and epistemology are considered as a pivotal philosophical issue from the ancient Greek time up to now. Aristotle explicitly deals with this subject. His notion of time can be also seen in Avicenna’s writings. This point have arisen many questions and discussions concerning that whether Avicenna as a commentator of Aristotle simply narrates Aristotle’s view, or he elaborates and develops Aristotle’s idea and presents his own view. The aim of this paper is to study this issue and discuss about the viewpoints of some Muslim scholars who believe that Avicenna’s idea is not fundamentally different from that of Aristotle. In addition, we study the viewpoints of those who believe that although Avicenna uses the same structure as Aristotle did, his specific considerations make his theory of time distinctive. The paper elaborates that, in some senses, there are at least two differences between these two philosophers: regarding the derivative / non-derivative conceptions of time, and regarding the divisibility / indivisibility of time.
amir ehsan karbasi zadeh
Abstract
Attempts to capture the distinction between categorical and dispositional states in terms of more primitive modal notions – subjunctive conditionals, causal roles, or combinatorial principles – are bound to fail. Such failure is ensured by a deep symmetry in the ways dispositional and categorical ...
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Attempts to capture the distinction between categorical and dispositional states in terms of more primitive modal notions – subjunctive conditionals, causal roles, or combinatorial principles – are bound to fail. Such failure is ensured by a deep symmetry in the ways dispositional and categorical states alike carry modal import. But the categorical/dispositional distinction should not be abandoned; it underpins important metaphysical disputes. Rather, it should be taken as a primitive, after which the doomed attempts at reductive explanation can be transformed into circular but interesting accounts
reza akbarian; mohsen emami na'ini
Abstract
In this article, Mullā Sadrā’s theories on practical philosophy are compared with those of Aristotle, Al-Fārābī, Ibn Sīnā, and Suhrawardī, revealing Mulla Sadrā’s radical innovations in the matter in respects to their widely revered views. Muslim philosophers such as Al-Farabi and, ...
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In this article, Mullā Sadrā’s theories on practical philosophy are compared with those of Aristotle, Al-Fārābī, Ibn Sīnā, and Suhrawardī, revealing Mulla Sadrā’s radical innovations in the matter in respects to their widely revered views. Muslim philosophers such as Al-Farabi and, after him, Ibn Sina, regarded action and will as secondary and subordinate. By introducing this problem, the author is not to claim that they paid no attention to practical issues or to the value of man’s acts; but it is meant to say that, like Aristotle, they deemed thought to be principial and thus the will subordinate to it. Despite opposition of Ash‘ari scholars in general and Ghazali in particular and somehow jurists and mystics, such a view was followed until the time of Suhrawardi and Ibn Arabi. At this time, Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina’s views on the matter were criticized and a new path was taken on the issue of the priority of thought to practice and priority of thought to will. However, Mulla Sadra presented the most innovative view on this issue on the basis of an inclusive view on existence as well as on man in theoretical and practical realms. On this basis, Mulla Sadra rejected both the views of Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina who considered God to be an Agent-by-foreknowledge so that he may deem God’s knowledge to be sufficient to realize it, and Suhrawardi’s theory according to which God’s agency was agency-by-agreement, so that His active knowledge may suffice for the realization of action. For him, nor knowledge is primary and essential neither will and action are secondary and subordinate. Basing himself on such a view, Mulla Sadra proceeds to discuss the relation between speculative and practical philosophy and provides ideas that are fully different from those of previous philosophers on the issues of practical philosophy and political philosophy, as well as concerning the qualities of the first ruler of the polis. The aim of this article is to present an account of Mulla Sadra’s ideas concerning the relation between theory and practice, and to demonstrate its philosophical implications in the field of political thinking as compared to the present situation.
adebola babatonde ekamola
Abstract
The paper critically examines the pacifist doctrine, which maintains that the practice of non-violence provides a guarantee for social peace. It scrutinises the underlying assumptions of the theory, its essential characteristics as well as the extent to which it can actually promote social peace. The ...
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The paper critically examines the pacifist doctrine, which maintains that the practice of non-violence provides a guarantee for social peace. It scrutinises the underlying assumptions of the theory, its essential characteristics as well as the extent to which it can actually promote social peace. The paper maintains that as a theory, pacifism holds great promise in the quest for a peaceful social order. However, it has a number of problems that inhibits its practical effectiveness.
ahmad asgari; maedeh eslamloo
Abstract
Abstract Plato inquires falsity alongside knowledge and tries to explain the possibility of false belief. He thus suggests two explanations of false belief, one of which is on the basis of the dichotomy between knowing & not-knowing, and the other between being & not-being. Both ways, however, ...
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Abstract Plato inquires falsity alongside knowledge and tries to explain the possibility of false belief. He thus suggests two explanations of false belief, one of which is on the basis of the dichotomy between knowing & not-knowing, and the other between being & not-being. Both ways, however, entails puzzles. Plato applies three solutions to solve the puzzles all of which fail. He thus intends to establish that relying merely on particulars as the objects of knowledge entails the impossibility of the explanation of false belief. Plato’s investigation of false belief in Theaetetus is the concern of this paper. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
philosophy
Simin Esfandiari
Abstract
IntroductionIn various philosophical perspectives, the concept of the essence and being of the universe is one of the issues that has always led to discussions and reflections among renowned philosophers such as Plato and Arthur Schopenhauer. Plato, focusing on the concept of ideas and the world of ...
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IntroductionIn various philosophical perspectives, the concept of the essence and being of the universe is one of the issues that has always led to discussions and reflections among renowned philosophers such as Plato and Arthur Schopenhauer. Plato, focusing on the concept of ideas and the world of thought, and Schopenhauer, emphasizing the will and the concept of the "thing in itself," have created various views on truth and existence, each influenced by different philosophical and historical backgrounds. This article seeks to provide a deeper insight into the concept of the essence or "being" of the universe and the epistemological function of art within it through the study and analysis of the perspectives of Plato and Schopenhauer. By examining these concepts, the role and importance of art as a means of understanding and cognizing the universe are explored. On one hand, a look into Plato's philosophy and the concept of ideas and forms is presented to understand how art relates to truth and being, and on the other hand, Schopenhauer's perspective on will and the "thing in itself" and the role of art in understanding and visualizing these concepts are examined. Given that each of these perspectives is rooted in rich and sometimes complex philosophical thoughts, the writing of this article is dedicated to a detailed analysis of the concepts and a review of various sources related to these topics. It is hoped that these analyses can present the perspectives of Plato and Schopenhauer in the context of art and knowledge to the readers in the best possible way, aiding in a clearer understanding and enlightenment of our perception of the world and art. Literature ReviewIn the articles "Aesthetics and Art in Plato's Philosophy" by Abolhasan Ghaffari (2015) and "The Role of Art in Schopenhauer's Thought" by Mohammad Javad Safaian and Amini (2009), Plato's view on art and its levels, as well as Schopenhauer's view on the role of art in alleviating pain and suffering, have been explained. However, the comparison between these two thoughts, especially the epistemic function of art in understanding the essence of the world or the thing-in-itself, is a new approach addressed in this article. Methodology This article attempts a descriptive-analytical approach. After explaining the phenomenal world and the essence from Schopenhauer's perspective, the importance and position of art, the levels of art, and its epistemic function in Schopenhauer's thought are discussed by contemplating Plato's philosophy and his view on the relationship between art and understanding the truth of the world.. ConclusionSchopenhauer, like Plato, regards this world as a manifestation wherein the essence is manifested; because behind the sensible, there is an inner and mysterious truth, the visible world is entirely subsidiary and dependent on it, and there is no intrinsic difference between this visible world and the essence for Schopenhauer, just as for Plato, there is no intrinsic difference between the natural world and the world of forms. Considering the degrees of existence and corresponding degrees and levels of knowledge, this world is a shadow of that world, and knowledge of this world is a degree of levels of cognition, and during the example, it is considered as the highest example. The essence or the being of the world for Schopenhauer is the will, but the will is not the same as the Platonic example because from Schopenhauer's perspective, the Platonic example, which is rational, is an intermediary between will as the essence and the visible. Whereas, Schopenhauer's will be not accessible to reason. This is where the role and position of art in Schopenhauer's philosophy become clear; because Schopenhauer, like Plato, believes in the epistemic function of art; because art for Schopenhauer is not the expression of emotions and feelings; rather, art is a particular understanding of reality. Art is directly and immediately, not with general and abstract concepts, seeks to reach the essence and being of the world, and with art as the power of inner thought, knowledge of the essence and will, namely, the inner and true reality of the world, is attainable. Therefore, Schopenhauer considers true art as the observation of the general and will. Furthermore, art can create a kind of deep thought in humans to free the mind from the captivity of desires and, as a result, transcend suffering and hardships in the superior world. Plato, considering the relationship between epistemology and ontology in art, like Schopenhauer, seeks to give authenticity to art. Plato, by raising the criterion of knowledge for the artist in creating an artistic work, shows that the arts, as it were, in different directions, are reflective of knowledge of truth and untruth. Therefore, for Plato, knowledge is the most important component in imitation; if imitation is based on ignorance and lack of knowledge, it has a reprehensible meaning, and imitation based on knowledge is desirable and preferred. Plato in the Republic considers imitation as a formative authority that can be multi-layered; that is, it can be close to the truth or far from it, and while being imitative, believes that to imitate well, one must know the truth. The closer an art is to the truth, the more valuable it is; therefore, any art indifferent to the truth is considered worthless.
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