Leila Pajouhandeh
Volume 11, Issue 43 , October 2015, , Pages 71-96
Abstract
In this essay the relation of questioning with holy affair in Moulavi’s reflective poem will be discussed in an analytic manner. At first, Moulana's worldview in a general approach on source, position, limits, capacity and properties of knowledge levels and then the states of sciences, techniques, ...
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In this essay the relation of questioning with holy affair in Moulavi’s reflective poem will be discussed in an analytic manner. At first, Moulana's worldview in a general approach on source, position, limits, capacity and properties of knowledge levels and then the states of sciences, techniques, and human arts and philosophical and rational methods and necessity for using the mentioned subjects not only in mundane life, even sometimes as a means for salvation in that world are studied while Moulavi grants undeniable privileges to mystical insight and intuition from revelatory source
In the area of holy affair, Moulavi while pointing on detriments and disadvantages of using human knowledge in this area and necessity for suitability and relation between tool and subject studied emphasizes the ineffectiveness of questioning in this area and necessity for patience with holy and revelatory presence of perfect man and magnificent Quran which are viewed as mediators between human and God and connected to divine source and have infallibility privilege.
reza rasuli sherbayani
Abstract
It is one of the basic questions of the Logic that why Aristotle has not dealt with conditional logic. How has the very originator of logic not paid any attention to such an important topic? Has this carelessness been some kind of ignorance or has it been deliberated and Aristotle has had good reasons ...
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It is one of the basic questions of the Logic that why Aristotle has not dealt with conditional logic. How has the very originator of logic not paid any attention to such an important topic? Has this carelessness been some kind of ignorance or has it been deliberated and Aristotle has had good reasons for that? In this article, after having examined the conditional logic (conditional syllogism and proposition) from the stoics’ point of view and explaining its significance for modern logicians, theoretical and philosophical bases of the two systems of predicative and conditional logic have been discussed. With studying Aristotle’s philosophy and having in mind his specific views regarding categories and the insertion of the things in The Ten Categories we can conclude that Aristotle has had an essence-based way of thinking and this is completely different from empirical thinking of the stoics, because stoics deal with external laws of the things in their philosophical thinking, rather than with essence and nature of the things. Therefore, the stoics have deviated from the predicative logic and have focused on conditional logic, because this kind of viewing the beings does not have the necessities of an insertion and predicative system. In the same way that, we cannot speak conditionally and dubiously with a class-based look at the world's beings. In other words, regarding Aristotle's philosophical and ontological bases, we cannot accept conditional logic. For this reason, Aristotle has not entered discussing conditional syllogism and proposition in his works, whereas Megara school have dealt with these discussions before Aristotle, and after him this discussion has been seriously followed by the stoics, because it has been more compatible with their ontology.
mehdi taaherian
Abstract
It is prevalently perceived that Kant considered the debat of time only in transcendental aesthetic and schematism of categories of understanding, but this imagination is not absolutely correct. It is right that Kant's whole critical philosophy, especially critique of pure reason, is the debat of time. ...
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It is prevalently perceived that Kant considered the debat of time only in transcendental aesthetic and schematism of categories of understanding, but this imagination is not absolutely correct. It is right that Kant's whole critical philosophy, especially critique of pure reason, is the debat of time. In fact, Kant in Critique of Pure Reason, founded a sort of metaphysics which can be called metaphysics of time and on this base he changed subject of metaphysics from being to time. Indeed, Kant believes that Human is a temporal being so he can only think about temporal subjects in a choronological manner
philosophy
Mehdi Khayatzadeh
Abstract
John Cottingham focuses on two types of religious experience: general religious experience and specific religious experience. According to him, general experiences do not require special and complex education, scientific research or philosophical theorizing, but are a simple act of accepting a gift. ...
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John Cottingham focuses on two types of religious experience: general religious experience and specific religious experience. According to him, general experiences do not require special and complex education, scientific research or philosophical theorizing, but are a simple act of accepting a gift. Of course, unlike everyday observations, such experiences are not available to everyone and their realization requires special conditions. Regarding specific religious experiences, he also believes that when dealing with parts of the Bible that contain reports of such experiences, one should neither have a naturalistic or demythologizing approach, nor an appearance-oriented approach; Rather, these verses should be interpreted in such a way that both its amazing content is preserved and this content does not conflict with modern science. Using the basics of Islamic philosophy, this work has a critical review of both parts of his view. The result of these criticisms is that due to the personal nature of evidences from religious experiences, the epistemological guarantee of these experiences is obtained through the rational and revelatory method. And based on this, these experiences cannot be considered as an independent path alongside the rational and revelatory path. Also, the observation of specific religious experiences is not a sensory observation and occurs in the container of human imagination and fantasy, without being a part of these experiences, they have become a characteristic of the self.
hasan ahmadi; mastaneh kakai
Abstract
The problem of God as ipsum esse is dependent to the way of understanding esse and defining acts of being and existence. Aquinas shows the importance of this problem in On Binge and Essence. Aquinas uses being (esse) in different meanings in his works. In Summa theological, he ascribes two meanings to ...
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The problem of God as ipsum esse is dependent to the way of understanding esse and defining acts of being and existence. Aquinas shows the importance of this problem in On Binge and Essence. Aquinas uses being (esse) in different meanings in his works. In Summa theological, he ascribes two meanings to esse: the act of essence, and the composition of a proposition affected by the mind in predicating a predicate to a subject. We use the second meaning about God as well as the first meaning; we say "God exists" is true. Aquinas notes that not only about things that composed of matter and form, but also about sui generis substances, the essence differs from existence. Only is God the same as his essence. Aquinas believes the name "He who exists" is most properly applies to God. The being is the most unlimited and universal name which its only bearer is the sui generis existent whose essence is the same as his existence.
hoseyn harsih; jalal hajizadeh
Abstract
As democracy has a generative nature, there is continuing discussion and study about its principles, teachings, objectives and conceptual development. This article aims to study and provide a scientific explanation of Habermas’s theory of discourse democracy and evaluate his reflections. For this ...
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As democracy has a generative nature, there is continuing discussion and study about its principles, teachings, objectives and conceptual development. This article aims to study and provide a scientific explanation of Habermas’s theory of discourse democracy and evaluate his reflections. For this purpose, analyzing his deliberative democracy patterns, through an analytical-descriptive approach and by library research, authors of this study investigate into the theoretical components of his thoughts with the aim of clarifying his basic principles of democracy. In view of the researchers, the discourse democracy of Habermas is of profound philosophical roots which form part of the knowledge foundation with a methodology focused on Emancipation. Therefore, findings of this research show that the political opinions and thoughts of Habermas have their roots in his philosophical principles.
mehdi dehbashi; marzieh rezaian
Abstract
When the human being starts to know himself and appreciate his abilities, it is as if he has a kind of responsibility to transcend himself form lower stages of humanity to higher ones. For Kierkegaard, this transcendence is possible by helping of the human outstanding characteristic, namely the Anxiety. ...
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When the human being starts to know himself and appreciate his abilities, it is as if he has a kind of responsibility to transcend himself form lower stages of humanity to higher ones. For Kierkegaard, this transcendence is possible by helping of the human outstanding characteristic, namely the Anxiety. According to his notion of anxiety, any individual is always concerned and anxious about the quality of his choices. This anxiety leads the individual to choose the best choice through which he can represent his very own self as much as possible. For Maulana, the human being who has the thought faculty which differentiates him from other livings, not only can grasp knowledge about himself, but also about other things, just by applying this ability correctly. Consideration of both thinkers' thoughts can help us to comprehend this ability. In this paper, we investigate human being in order to recognize the spirit's stages and to know human beings' outstanding characteristics in the two mentioned thinkers' thoughts. Therefore, we investigate the privacy and the examination for attainment more pure self.
Mahdi Behniafar
Abstract
This essay deals with Descartes' Provisional Morality and some of its epistemic requirements. Here, we shall introduce two rival readings of these principles, one of which does not give a plausible position to these principles and does not consider them to be an essential part of Descartes's system, ...
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This essay deals with Descartes' Provisional Morality and some of its epistemic requirements. Here, we shall introduce two rival readings of these principles, one of which does not give a plausible position to these principles and does not consider them to be an essential part of Descartes's system, and the other assumes these principles to be both permanent and universal, and then present our explanation to the epistemic realm and also the human realm of these principles. First, we have presented our account of the relation between these Maxims with Cartesian key elements, namely Doubt and Method. Then we discuss the basic nature of Provisionality of these Maxims; a concept that is apparently normal but has relatively different results and requirements. I argue that the moral code has an epistemic character, not a time; time also depends on the events of Reason. Also, while we argued that these principles cannot be considered temporary, we have shown that the idea of some Descartes commentators that these principles, from the very beginning, were permanent and universal is a misconception that can't be imposed on Descartes. Based on our argument, these principles can be transformed into permanent principles in certain epistemic conditions that we have explained, but at the same time, in certain circumstances, they may also be disaffirmed and, as a result, become temporary principles. When these maxims count as the product of an argumentative process, then a non-argumentative description such as the conservatism of these principles will be an abnormal description that is unrelated to Descartes' will.
alireza Faraji
Abstract
Husserl in his method of phenomenology casts a new light on the discussion of experience through a new definition of cognition and avoids the error of preceding philosophers, classic empiricists, in particular; thus the cognition is no longer based on the immediate experiences of the world but it is ...
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Husserl in his method of phenomenology casts a new light on the discussion of experience through a new definition of cognition and avoids the error of preceding philosophers, classic empiricists, in particular; thus the cognition is no longer based on the immediate experiences of the world but it is based on intentional experience which relies upon immediate intuition of objects. The result of this perception is a live experience. Therefore, for Husserl, knowing the world around us is based on the lived which is based on the intentionality of consciousness. For Husserl, talking about this intentional world happens through ideal meanings and this group of meanings rests around the axis of a transcendental ego which is the center of intentional actions and moods. Therefore, the analysis of the speech act of this “ego” is done through semantics and based on transcendental logic and it is separated from syntactic theory. Husserl makes this new change to move the transcendental subject into the intersubjective world. In the present research, the objective is to analyze the effect of logical semantics on speech and transition to the intersubjective world.
ali fath taheri; mehrdad parsa
Abstract
The renowned post-modern philosopher,Julia Kristeva, tries to depict the world and flowing subject through her psychiatric and linguistic approach towards the fundamental concepts of philosophy. So, based on the concept of Chora, she tries to explain her theory. This concept was used for the first time ...
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The renowned post-modern philosopher,Julia Kristeva, tries to depict the world and flowing subject through her psychiatric and linguistic approach towards the fundamental concepts of philosophy. So, based on the concept of Chora, she tries to explain her theory. This concept was used for the first time in Plato's Timaeus in order to elaborate the development of the world, but in Kristeva's thought it turned out to be the first origin of the subject. This article is an attempt to explain the concept of Chora in Kristeva's thought and it's relevance to Plato's Chora.
tahmatollah mousavi moghaddam; amir abbas alizamani
Abstract
A comparative discussion on "Spiritual Health", as one of the most imperative health fundamentals has been initiated. This concept has recently been added to the previous health constituents including physical, psychological and social aspects by the World Health Organization. This paper considers views ...
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A comparative discussion on "Spiritual Health", as one of the most imperative health fundamentals has been initiated. This concept has recently been added to the previous health constituents including physical, psychological and social aspects by the World Health Organization. This paper considers views adopted by two philosophers and thinkers, Rene Descartes, known as the father of modern philosophy, culture and humanism and Allameh Tabatabaei, regarded as the representative of Islamic culture and philosophy in recent time. Due to his humanistic perspective, Descartes holds that spiritual health is of an abstract nature and is solely connected with human's conscience and intellectual insight and is also indicative of a naturalistic (materialistic) interpretation of humans, but it is not concerned with humans' desires, behavior and super-humanistic realm. But, in Allameh Tabatabaei's opinion, who is a divine philosopher, spiritual health depends on humans' super-naturalistic realm and meaning seeking nature, i.e. the acceptance of absolute reality principle (God) as the meaning of life that aside from correcting humans' insight and outlook, assigns direction to his behavior and attitude.
moharam torabi
Narges Zargar
Abstract
Mulla Sadra believes that there is no difference between writing and speech in their essence. By separation of God speech from human speech, we come to this conclusion that based on Mulla Sadra’s philosophy of language and his explanation of language process; human writing is prior over his speech. ...
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Mulla Sadra believes that there is no difference between writing and speech in their essence. By separation of God speech from human speech, we come to this conclusion that based on Mulla Sadra’s philosophy of language and his explanation of language process; human writing is prior over his speech. If achieving of Truth is our criterion, there would be two difficulties in regard to human speech and writing: human mistakes in achieving truth; changing concepts into the agreed words in the process of language. Considering that human speech is prior over his writing, causes the listener, for understanding meaning of the speech, to be confined to the time and situation of the speech; whereas, reading the text causes the reader to analyze all possible meanings of the text. Based on Mulla Sadra’s view, there are two principles in the process of language: rationality before speaking/writing, and analyzing any speech or text.
alireza faraji
Abstract
The question about life and living has a history as long as human history and it is a matter that has taken various faces in the evolution of thought history. Today, this question is being pursued more seriously, to the extent that it even became a branch of philosophy of religion in universities. Also, ...
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The question about life and living has a history as long as human history and it is a matter that has taken various faces in the evolution of thought history. Today, this question is being pursued more seriously, to the extent that it even became a branch of philosophy of religion in universities. Also, among various contemporary philosophical methods, analytic and linguistic philosophers have analyzed with precision and specificity the various structures of language propositions that are partly based on the attitudes of Wittgenstein's philosophical logic treatise. Therefore, analyzing the logical structure of the question of the meaning of life, and the correctness or inaccuracy of its design in Wittgenstein's thinking is attractive and new or modern; for, on the one hand, in his dual thought, propositions of some sciences such as ethics, philosophy, art, religion, and metaphysics are dumb and meaningless because they are not compatible with rational standards of language, and on the other hand, his faithful and pragmatic beliefs have led to different perceptions of human life and living. Hence, our attempt in the present article is to measure the contradiction and paradoxes in Wittgenstein's thinking in proportion to the important question of the meaning of life, and to review its possible answer.
Mehrshad Rezaee; Seyed Ali Kalantari; Amir Ehsan Karbasizadeh
Abstract
Cornell realism belongs to the new wave movements in ethical naturalism debates. What distinguishes Cornell realism from other ethical naturalism is that the thesis adopts an anti-reductionist approach towards ethical facts. Our aim in this paper is to consider the thesis based on Richard Boyd’s ...
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Cornell realism belongs to the new wave movements in ethical naturalism debates. What distinguishes Cornell realism from other ethical naturalism is that the thesis adopts an anti-reductionist approach towards ethical facts. Our aim in this paper is to consider the thesis based on Richard Boyd’s views who is the most well-known defender of the thesis. We try to show that Boyd’s proposal on the semantics of ethical terms can defuse both Moore’s open-question argument and constructivist relativism arguments. Along with considering Boyd’s thesis, we will consider the required premises of his argument like the idea of the natural kind, extensional identities, co-referentiality, and partial denotation.
Mohsen Bagherzadeh meskibaf
Abstract
In this article, after the author theoretically studies social-political events, and how to develop the theory of civil society, he goes on to understand and study the development of public will in civil society and the state and the dialectic between them in Hegel's political thought. Hegel was the ...
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In this article, after the author theoretically studies social-political events, and how to develop the theory of civil society, he goes on to understand and study the development of public will in civil society and the state and the dialectic between them in Hegel's political thought. Hegel was the first philosopher in the history of philosophy to consciously place a strategic position on civil society. And through the three basic elements, namely the legal system, the police, and the guilds and unions, as well as by examining the classes, all of which are in the service of civil society for the first time, it takes steps to form a partial will to form the public will. And through the theory of institutions, not only can he achieve the objectification of the abstract human will, but he also achieves the first stage of a unique general explanation. Here Hegel steps into government. Upon entering the public sector, Hegel quickly distinguished the field on the three principles of the organic matter versus the mechanical matter, the public interest over the personal interest, and finally the general precedence over a part of civil society. Consequently, with the precedence of the state over civil society in its own sense, it considers the public will to be the truth of the partial will, morality, and moral life.
abd al hussein khosrowpanah
Volume 9, Issue 34 , July 2013, , Pages 81-102
Abstract
As a remarkable achievement of Islamic philosophy, the theory of religious knowledge has had its opponents and proponents since its conception. Seyyed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas is one of the proponents and theoreticians of Islamization of knowledge. He, first, adapted philosophy and worldview to the Quran, ...
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As a remarkable achievement of Islamic philosophy, the theory of religious knowledge has had its opponents and proponents since its conception. Seyyed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas is one of the proponents and theoreticians of Islamization of knowledge. He, first, adapted philosophy and worldview to the Quran, belief in the ranks of existence, and absolute dependence of existence on God. He went on to shed light on the unbreakable relation between human and the world, stating that human is the most important part of existence and an immortal being whose nature is best described in the Quran. Al-Attas, finally, defined the structure and goals of an effective educational system. For him, the true goal of education is to realize the truth of the Quran in human; therefore, the language and knowledge of the Quran should constitute the most important part of education. Moreover, al-Attas raised the issue of Westernization of knowledge to clarify the Islamization of knowledge. In his belief, Westernization of knowledge covers (a) Western culture and civilization (b) key elements of natural sciences and (c) humanities and applied sciences. On the other hand, Islamization of knowledge, according to al-Attas, requires (a) recognizing the key elements of Islamic knowledge (b) replacing Western key elements with Islamic ones (c) basing natural and applied sciences on Islamic foundations and (d) revising these sciences in accordance with Islamic elements.
seyyed masoud zamani
Volume 10, Issue 40 , January 2015, , Pages 83-98
Abstract
After Being and Time, Heidegger always connects his principal philosophical terms such as Dasein, metaphysics and nihilism, etc. to words like “european’’, “western’’ and “West’’. In this way, he turns his philosophical termes into a discourse about ...
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After Being and Time, Heidegger always connects his principal philosophical terms such as Dasein, metaphysics and nihilism, etc. to words like “european’’, “western’’ and “West’’. In this way, he turns his philosophical termes into a discourse about the Western. As well as, Heidegger often had dealt with Spengler's the decline of the West in his early lectures in the beginning of second decade of the last century. These indicate subject matter of "the West-problem’’ in his philosophy. On the other hand, Heidegger is in conversation with the Far East, especially after the Second World War., a dialogue that he speaks about them in his main philosophical themes like Being, nothingness, Dasein, metaphysics, etc. However, his relationship with East Asia was bygone and returns to early of second decade of the last century. These instances indicate subject matter of “the East-problem’’ in his philosophy too. In addition, both mentioned problems are interwined. Therefore, it must be understood together in a matter of “East and West’’. This article attempt to show Heidegger's major philosophical themeswith a brief mention to the extent of the relationship between unified subject of east and west together which reflects the thinking of this great thinker and hence it should be considered as the basis of understanding and interpretation of Heidegger's thinking. But the centrality of the West-East-Problem in no way contradicts the question of being, that Heidegger declared as the main subject of his philosophy, because it also is associated with Heidegger's question. For this reason, this question can also be asked as question from him
philosophy
Sayedeh Azadeh Emami; yousef shaghool
Abstract
Modern media are undoubtedly the most important phenomenon of the current century. Since it has affected all aspects of human life, from science, religion, policy, economy and culture to most personal everyday relations; the “lifestyle” of the contemporary man, in a word. Such a wide range ...
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Modern media are undoubtedly the most important phenomenon of the current century. Since it has affected all aspects of human life, from science, religion, policy, economy and culture to most personal everyday relations; the “lifestyle” of the contemporary man, in a word. Such a wide range of influence has made thinkers to discuss and study the media. These studies has resulted in a new interdisciplinary field of science known as "Philosophy of Media" which explores the media from various aspects. In a approach to media nature, some believe in an independent essence which is individually devisable. Some other, on the other hand, refer to the media as a means and believe that the media lack the authority to direct human life, and it is the man who determines how to use media, instead. This paper aims to study Heidegger and Postman points of view about the media. Both thinkers are considered to be essentialists who have commented the media from technology aspect and emphasized on self-awareness to encounter any technology, including media, in order to get rid of contemporary crisis.
Morteza Pouyan
Abstract
There is no doubt that both Mulla Sadra and Allame believe that philosophical necessity holds in external world; they begin their philosophy by necessity as well. Necessity is actually the origin and basis of all beings and truths in external world, one can even argue that it is the same as the objectivity ...
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There is no doubt that both Mulla Sadra and Allame believe that philosophical necessity holds in external world; they begin their philosophy by necessity as well. Necessity is actually the origin and basis of all beings and truths in external world, one can even argue that it is the same as the objectivity of things. It is, whatever being devoid of necessity, is devoid of objectivity and reality. But Mulla Sadra and Allame differ in the origin of such necessity. Each of these philosopher’s abstract necessity from one thing. Whereas Mulla Sadra takes necessity from being, Allame takes it from reality as such. In other words, for Mulla Sadra the basis of philosophical necessity of things lies in the being and for Allame in reality as such. Mulla Sadra, therefore, begins his philosophy from being and Allame from the reality of things. In this paper, we consider first the question of how they differ in the origin of abstraction of philosophical necessity and then the question of which philosophical and practical consequences follow from these two views.
Farang Qobadi; Hossein Houshangi
Abstract
The main concern in the discussion of philosophical rationalities is epistemology. Secondary rationalities have an origin in the mind, the question of whether or not these concepts apply outside the mind is important. By what mechanism or process does the mind achieve them? How and in what form is the ...
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The main concern in the discussion of philosophical rationalities is epistemology. Secondary rationalities have an origin in the mind, the question of whether or not these concepts apply outside the mind is important. By what mechanism or process does the mind achieve them? How and in what form is the realization of the rationalities of the second? Allameh Tabatabai knows how to obtain philosophical concepts in two ways: present knowledge and analysis of verdicts in propositions. The relationship between these two methods is not without ambiguity and Allameh has raised both in parallel. He prefers the second way, in the way of realism, he believes that the philosophical rationals of the second are the discoverers of the real world through the relational beings who are in the mind and the exact same. Secondary philosophical intellects have a hierarchy in the way of abstraction and realism that are completely different from each other. In this article, we will examine Allameh Tabatabai point of view with an analytical method.
philosophy
Ali Karbasizadeh Esfahani; Milad Omrani
Abstract
According to Marx's interpretation, in the Democritean system, atoms move in a vacuum according to a blind necessity. Applying the word "accidental" to the Democritus system does not imply the unpredictable or causeless movement of atoms; rather, it indicates the absence of a prior plan or specific end ...
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According to Marx's interpretation, in the Democritean system, atoms move in a vacuum according to a blind necessity. Applying the word "accidental" to the Democritus system does not imply the unpredictable or causeless movement of atoms; rather, it indicates the absence of a prior plan or specific end in the creation of the worlds. It's as if the atoms are moving in one direction, the end of which is the creation of worlds. Epicurus, unlike Democritus, does not believe in the existence of an inviolable necessity in the movements of atoms and includes the declination of the atom from the straight line as a sign of accidental movement in his atomistic system. It is with declination as an accidental movement that basically the creation of worlds begins. So the basis of the creation of worlds is chance. Epicurus believes in the accidental movement of atoms, and in the process of creating the worlds, he does not assume any prior plan. Epicurean chance indicates both the negation of the end and the accidental movements of atoms in declination from a straight line.
Marzieh Foroozandeh; Saeed Zibakalam Monfared; Hossein Mesbahian
Abstract
John Rawls's theory of justice is one of the most famous views in the political philosophy of the twentieth century. Contemporary German philosopher Yurgen Habermas believes that Rawls cannot justify this theory. Because the justification for this theory is based on some special premises that can not ...
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John Rawls's theory of justice is one of the most famous views in the political philosophy of the twentieth century. Contemporary German philosopher Yurgen Habermas believes that Rawls cannot justify this theory. Because the justification for this theory is based on some special premises that can not be compatible with other Rawls's essential views. This article examines Habermas's critique by carefully reading Rawls' theory of justice. It seems that Habermas's critique can be answered in two ways: The first answer seeks justification in what Rawls calls the "public reason" of a society. This answer is more in line with Rawls' appearance, but Habermas considers this interpretation of Rawls's theory to be contextualist and does not accept it. The second answer tries to focus on the concept of "general facts" in Rawls's theory, and provide a basis for the universal and non-contextual justification of Rawls's theory; the basis that Habermas claimed Rawls lacked.
Zahra Sarkarpour; Zahra Khazaei
Abstract
The theory of “knowledge by presence” has a special place in the Sadra system. “Knowledge by presence” is both a theory of knowledge in Sadra's philosophy and a theory for explaining self-knowledge. Reflecting on this important theory will immediately make us realize its complex ...
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The theory of “knowledge by presence” has a special place in the Sadra system. “Knowledge by presence” is both a theory of knowledge in Sadra's philosophy and a theory for explaining self-knowledge. Reflecting on this important theory will immediately make us realize its complex and mysterious nature. The present paper intends to provide an accurate and clear reading of this theory in a clearer language in the form of a comparative approach between this theory and one of the most important theories of self-knowledge in the analytic philosophy, namely the theory of “Knowledge by acquaintance”. At first glance, Russell's theory of “Knowledge by acquaintance” is one of the most similar to Sadra's theory. Such characteristics as the condition of presence, immediacy, and infallibility are examples of the similarity of these two theories. But the discussion of “unity of the knower and the known” in Sadra's theory is the point of separation between the two theories, and in fact, it is a place that will seriously challenge the claim of closeness between these theories. Finally, perhaps with some tolerance, Russell's theory is a primitive and incomplete picture of Sadra's theory. Furthermore, it should be noted that understanding these two theories in the context of the different philosophical systems of these two philosophers -namely Sadra's theory of Unity and originality of existence and Russel's theory of Knowledge by Acquaintance- makes it more difficult to claim the deep closeness between these two theories.
Seyed Ali Kalantari; Meghdad Ghari
Abstract
On the basis of the normativity of belief thesis in Epistemology, there is a normative relation between a belief and its content. On the basis of a well-known formulation of the Relation, which we call the narrow-scope norm of Truth, “one ought to (believe that p) iff p is true”. Our focus, ...
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On the basis of the normativity of belief thesis in Epistemology, there is a normative relation between a belief and its content. On the basis of a well-known formulation of the Relation, which we call the narrow-scope norm of Truth, “one ought to (believe that p) iff p is true”. Our focus, in this paper concerns the explanatory role of the truth norm of belief with regard to the norm of evidence, according to which "one ought to (believe that p) iff evidence supports its truth"; we will call the latter norm, the narrow-scope norm of evidence. On the basis of the idea, evidence is not independently valuable, but their normativity pro producing beliefs depends on the truth norm of belief. In another words, as evidence typically point toward truth and that, according to the truth norm of belief, forming beliefs are constrained normatively by truth, it follows that beliefs are constrained normatively by evidence as well. After specifying the idea, we will consider the wide-scope norm of belief, according to which “one ought to (believe that p iff p is true)”. Our claim which we are going to argue for is that the wide-scope norm of truth has a better explanatory role with respect to evidence in comparison with the narrow-scope norm of belief.
