Seyedeh Massoumeh Mousavi
Abstract
The concept of freedom is one of the most central concepts in Kant’s Philosophy which has a critical role in both theoretical and practical reason. Some interpreters believe that agency and spontaneity of reason in theoretical knowledge is another expression of autonomy and freedom. In another ...
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The concept of freedom is one of the most central concepts in Kant’s Philosophy which has a critical role in both theoretical and practical reason. Some interpreters believe that agency and spontaneity of reason in theoretical knowledge is another expression of autonomy and freedom. In another hand, freedom plays a central part in practical reason too. In fact, practical reason as a will that determines itself abstracted from the casual system of nature is nothing but freedom. But there is a challenge that this fundamental concept in Kant’s philosophy encounter. This challenge in Hegelian terms is that this freedom is just “Transcendental”; it means this freedom is abstracted and cut of reality and Kant never succeed in proving this fundamental concept of his philosophy and just supposed it Transcendentally, as something needed for establishing his philosophy. In this article, we first try to explain the challenge and then critique the possibility of solving it by focusing on Kant’s writings on History. So, in the introduction part, we explain the critique of Transcendentalism in the concept of freedom. Then, we try to show how Kant in the philosophy of history tried to find a way out of the Transcendental grasp of freedom and shows that freedom is an actuality that appears in history. In conclusion, we critique the sufficiency of our reading and this suggested solution.
Mohammad Hosseinzadeh
Abstract
One of the new challenges to ‘free will’, based on new sciences, is the experiment that Benjamin Libet did about the brain’s processes that lead to human will. In this experiment he concluded that it is not so that humans initially will, and then the brain will work and execute the ...
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One of the new challenges to ‘free will’, based on new sciences, is the experiment that Benjamin Libet did about the brain’s processes that lead to human will. In this experiment he concluded that it is not so that humans initially will, and then the brain will work and execute the order of the will and finally organs move as a result of those process; but it is the human brains that unconsciously initiate the will 400 ms before action and humans will be aware of the brain's decision only 150 ms before the action. In this article, we have discussed the Libet's experiment on conscious will and according to the principles of Mulla Sadra, such as the abstract - material identity of the soul, predication between the soul and the forces, consciousness in all degrees of existence; we have explained the conscious will. The result of this study is that in Mulla Sadra's philosophy, Libeb's experiment does not conflict with the conscious will.
Reza Mosmer
Abstract
In the Notebooks and final pages of the Tractatus Wittgenstein identifies “good” with “happy”, and the latter with “being in harmony with the world”. He makes a distinction between two notions of self: Empirical and Transcendental. While the former stands in causal ...
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In the Notebooks and final pages of the Tractatus Wittgenstein identifies “good” with “happy”, and the latter with “being in harmony with the world”. He makes a distinction between two notions of self: Empirical and Transcendental. While the former stands in causal connection with the World, the latter is causally independent of the world. The subject matter of ethics, Wittgenstein claims, is not actions of the self, but its attitudes (of approval or disapproval) towards the world. Moreover, he argues that it is merely the attitude of the transcendental self and its state of “Willing” that can be judged from an ethical point of view. In this paper, I will argue that this account of ethics faces a formidable difficulty: to be a legitimate subject matter of ethics, the self ought to be transcendental and at the same time have some attitude (acceptance or disapproval) towards the world. I argue that the transcendental subject cannot meet both requirements. Finally, I use Backström (2018) and McGuinness (2002), as examples, to explain how this difficulty has led to misreadings of Wittgenstein’s account of ethics in the Tractatus.
philosophy
Meisam Molaee; zahra khazaei; Muhammad Legenhausen
Abstract
Introduction:Jesse Prinz is known as one of the serious defenders of moral sentimentalism. Usually, sentimentalists give little role to moral reasoning in the process of producing moral judgment. But Prinz, unlike others, believes that moral reasoning and emotions both play a role in morality.In this ...
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Introduction:Jesse Prinz is known as one of the serious defenders of moral sentimentalism. Usually, sentimentalists give little role to moral reasoning in the process of producing moral judgment. But Prinz, unlike others, believes that moral reasoning and emotions both play a role in morality.In this article, after examining Prinz's view on the nature of reasoning, by examining his answers to the following questions, his view on the nature of moral reasoning is extracted:What is the relationship between moral reasoning and the traditional division of theoretical/practical reasoning? Does moral reasoning fit into this division? If so, which of the two types is it?Does moral reasoning have a deductive structure or not? If its structure is inference, which is the type of inference?What is the relationship between moral reasoning and moral generalism and particularism? Does moral reasoning require the use of general principles or not?Can moral reasoning be motivating?What is the purpose of moral reasoning? In other words, what is its function? Literature Review:In his various works, Prinz has written about moral reasoning. But it has not considered the nature of moral reasoning in a coherent way and in an integrated framework. Therefore, it can be claimed that our article is the first writing for a coherent examination of the nature of moral reasoning from Prinz's point of view. Methodology:In this article, Prinz's answers to the mentioned questions are extracted from his various writings, then each of these answers will be analyzed and finally, some criticisms that may be made to these answers will be given. Results:After analyzing Prinz's point of view, we believe that:He considers moral reasoning as a type of theoretical reasoning. Because he believes that moral reasoning is formed to justify moral judgment. So it is not like practical reasoning that leads to action/intention.Like Jonathan Haight, he believes that moral reasoning is presented after moral judgment and to justify it, but he believes that moral reasoning has another function: resolving moral disagreement.According to our analysis, he must have considered the structure of justification in moral reasoning as foundationalism. Because he believes that moral reasoning ultimately ends with fundamental norms that cannot be argued for.We think Prinz considers moral reasoning in the form of allegorical inference or case reasoning. Because he explains the process of justifying a moral judgment by comparing it to a specific example of a category.Prinz seemed not to believe that moral reasoning is based on general rules and principles. Because he does not believe in general moral rules according to the point of view of moral relativism. On the other hand, his view that moral reasoning is case reasoning is consistent with the view of moral particularists.Since Prinz is a moral sentimentalist, then, like David Hume, he must believe that moral reasoning has no motivational effect on action. Because in Prinz's view, since moral judgments are the product of emotions, they are motivating in themselves and do not require moral reasoning.Finally, unlike evolutionary ethics, he does not believe we have an innate capacity for moral reasoning. Conclusion:Contrary to what is obtained from the analysis of Prinz's view on moral reasoning, some psychological results indicate that moral agents, at least in some situations, do not use moral reasoning only to resolve moral disagreements, but use moral reasoning to create moral judgments. If this research is true, and these actors act according to this moral reasoning, then moral reasoning is sometimes motivating. On the other hand, according to Prinz's moral relativism point of view, in situations where two moral actors disagree with each other in a fundamental judgment, moral reasoning has practically no function. So, what Prinz has introduced as the function of moral reasoning is a weak function. If these criticisms are true, they suggest, Prinz's analysis of moral reasoning is not entirely without fault. Therefore, either Prinz should start to modify some of his views on moral reasoning or give stronger reasons for his claim.
vasil ghalouchan
Abstract
Examiningg the lilemry works of Charls Diceens, William Makepmce Thacktrqy, George Elliot and Thomas Harq)•, the a11thor produces a momic of the Victorimr morality in 19th centery E11gla11d. The author comes to tbe concluion that the Viaorian age was not as pnritan as it is usually imagined and ...
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Examiningg the lilemry works of Charls Diceens, William Makepmce Thacktrqy, George Elliot and Thomas Harq)•, the a11thor produces a momic of the Victorimr morality in 19th centery E11gla11d. The author comes to tbe concluion that the Viaorian age was not as pnritan as it is usually imagined and tlu moral problems that bumankind deals with in the cosrse of its developmml art in their e.mnce 1111iverso/, though not identical. Thry differ in their individual forms produced lry the individual periods ofhuman history
luis pojhan
Abstract
For many religious people there is a problem of doubting various creedal statements contained in their religions. Often propositional beliefs are looked upon as a necessary, though not sufficient, condition, for salvation. This causes great anxiety in doubters and raises the question of the importance ...
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For many religious people there is a problem of doubting various creedal statements contained in their religions. Often propositional beliefs are looked upon as a necessary, though not sufficient, condition, for salvation. This causes great anxiety in doubters and raises the question of the importance of belief in religion and in life in general. It is a question that has been neglected in philosophy of religion and Christian theology. In this paper I shall explore the question of the importance of belief as a religious attitude and suggest that there is at least one other attitude which may be adequate for religious faith even in the absence of belief, that attitude being hope. I shall develop a concept of faith as hope as an alternative to the usual notion that makes propositional belief that God exists a necessary condition for faith, as Plantinga implies in the quotation above. For simplicity’s sake I shall concentrate on the most important proposition in Western religious creeds, that which states that God exists (defined broadly as a benevolent, supreme Being, who is responsible for the creation of the universe), but the analysis could be applied mutatis mutandis to many other important propositions in religion (e.g., the Incarnation and the doctrine of the Trinity). I am not sure how these ideas fit into Islamic thought, but I offer up my paper to stimulate discussion between Christian and Islamic philosophy on the subjects of faith and doubt.
abbas manouchehri
Abstract
The notion of "H11ma11 Rights" encompass the two notions of "man" and "right" and the relationship between them. This relationship, boiueoer; pertains to much of theoretical as well as philosophical elaboration. Looking critical!J al the prevailing conception of this relationship, name!J that ofpossessive ...
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The notion of "H11ma11 Rights" encompass the two notions of "man" and "right" and the relationship between them. This relationship, boiueoer; pertains to much of theoretical as well as philosophical elaboration. Looking critical!J al the prevailing conception of this relationship, name!J that ofpossessive individualism, this paper points to a different conception for such relationsbip. Using the two metaphors of "Red Reason" and "Green Rights", a theo!y qf "human rights" is elaborated according to an i!lmninationist (Eshraghi) conception of "man" and an emancipatory conception qf 111ight".
godvin azenabor
Abstract
The concept of causality is fundamental to our understanding of the world. the idea of causality was made popular, in Western Philosophy, by David Hume; one of the best-know British empiricists. This paper examines critically the Human idea of causality-that of a necessary/physical connection - in juxtaposition ...
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The concept of causality is fundamental to our understanding of the world. the idea of causality was made popular, in Western Philosophy, by David Hume; one of the best-know British empiricists. This paper examines critically the Human idea of causality-that of a necessary/physical connection - in juxtaposition to an Africa theory. The thesis that the causal relation, when correctly defined, is as directly observable as many other facts and that the alleged of Humean denial of a causal tie is a myth.
mahmoud khatami
Abstract
The a priori is the basic characteristic ofKant's theory of knowledge. Formaliz/ng the a priori, Kant appears to distinguish the a priorifrom the postriori and qffirms its purity. He insists that the a priori is prior to the a postriori and stqys independent!Jfrom it. The overall objectiue of this paper ...
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The a priori is the basic characteristic ofKant's theory of knowledge. Formaliz/ng the a priori, Kant appears to distinguish the a priorifrom the postriori and qffirms its purity. He insists that the a priori is prior to the a postriori and stqys independent!Jfrom it. The overall objectiue of this paper is, boueier; to present and to support this idea that the a priori, even prior, can be defined l?J its relation to experience; ifthe a priori is prior to the a postriori, and ifits validity is not depended on the a postriori, it is still not ivithout mry relation with it. The main thesis I u;iflfoll01v here is that the a postriori could be called the root of the a priori: the a priori has its principle in the a postriorijust because it is given to it. The a priori is given in the experience. Instead of conceiving the a priori as a formal or logical cond Ition of ol?Jectiviry, it uould be considered as immanent in the objea and apprehended during the very act of experience, although known implicit!J before experience occurs. If the a priori is indeed given in experience, we are not constrained to restrict it to the formal conditions of oijectiviry. However, before proceeding to substantiate this thesis, I 1vill reiien. Kant's analysis of the a priori quick/y. Then, I willpresent the main thesis and its proof to deformalize the a priori and implant it in the a postriori domain.
Kathleen Haney
Abstract
The challenge to re-think Post-Modernity opens up if we see modernity in the light ef the phenomenological reduction. 5uspending belief in the central tenets of Modern Philosopf?y discloses that the so-called post• modernist pbilosopby mere!J extends the earlier projec: The failure o] calculative ...
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The challenge to re-think Post-Modernity opens up if we see modernity in the light ef the phenomenological reduction. 5uspending belief in the central tenets of Modern Philosopf?y discloses that the so-called post• modernist pbilosopby mere!J extends the earlier projec: The failure o] calculative reason trumpeted by po-mo thinkers need not result in the end of the proiect ef rationality. Rather, rethinking the philosophic tradition in a radical fashion leads to greater inclusion ef other perspectives andfaculties and more possibilities far reasoning together in the search for truth.
Mohammad Kazemi
Abstract
Mohammad Kazemi *PhD of Architecture, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, IranAbstractMuseum designing is a three-dimensional and hybrid process. It interconnects various disciplines such as architecture, graphic design, interior design, audio-visual graphics, and print graphics. Museum’s ...
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Mohammad Kazemi *PhD of Architecture, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, IranAbstractMuseum designing is a three-dimensional and hybrid process. It interconnects various disciplines such as architecture, graphic design, interior design, audio-visual graphics, and print graphics. Museum’s transformation during the 1930s is the main reason that drives storytelling to be adopted in the daily display routine of museums. Storytelling communicates meanings and mediates human knowledge of the world, humans, and architecture. Verbal storytelling, written storytelling, visual storytelling, and spatial storytelling help all age groups to communicate with the collections of the museums. In this paper, we investigate the role of the different kinds of storytelling in the museum's design process. We use an original survey of meaning and interpretation drawn from the fields of philosophy, linguistics, hermeneutics, humanistic geography, narrative theory, psychology, architectural theory and museology. In addition, we use researchers' personal perceptions and experiences. This study uses two case studies (Australian National Maritime Museum and Hong Kong Museum of History) to demonstrate how museums are currently utilizing storytelling and show the fundamental tools for its success. The results of this paper indicate that our understanding of master narratives needs more time and focus. The master narrative has to be followed and leaves little space for unrestricted meaning-making. Furthermore, in the non-linear storytelling, each thematic display can establish a separate identity. Then, museum architecture suggests a delightful environment for communicating meanings by self-learning and organized embodied experience of an entire space.
Negar Saboori; Amir Nasri
Abstract
Le Corbusier and Bataille -who was against architecture- seem to be two opposing figures. But there is a relation between the two. Building Ronchamp, le Corbusier was reading The Accursed Share of Bataille. ‘Le jeu or play’ is one of the common concepts in the theoretical framework of these ...
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Le Corbusier and Bataille -who was against architecture- seem to be two opposing figures. But there is a relation between the two. Building Ronchamp, le Corbusier was reading The Accursed Share of Bataille. ‘Le jeu or play’ is one of the common concepts in the theoretical framework of these two, which can be slightly different. In this paper we will look for this relation considering le Corbusier’s Ronchamp chapel. In Ronchamp le Corbusier brings the contrast-based play to the beginning of architecture: What is architecture and not architecture at the same time. In Ronchamp Le Corbusier continued with the process of rotating axes which he had started in 1920s; the same measure which Bataille takes in ‘Acéphale’. The play in Ronchamp is ‘changing Thing into no-thing’ and ‘sacrificing’ architecture; concepts which are found in general economy and Bataille’s works. Ultimately Ronchamp plays with the common organization of architecture, both in reference and form. This is just what Bataille admires in works he considers as the cathedrals of the time or beyond: Manet’s works and Lascaux Cave Hall. In Le Corbusier’s not-well-understood concept of ‘machine of life’ the process of architecture is very close to the ‘formless’ process of Bataille: Playing of intensities that reaches to its acme in Ronchamp. By sacrificing what he loves, Le Corbusier, as he imagines, sits on the place of ‘Sovereign’ of Bataille.
philosophy
Hossein Ghassami; mohammad Asghari
Abstract
By analyzing the story "Report to the Academy" by Franz Kafka and considering it in the context of Aristotle's and Heidegger's views on the explanation of man, this research has tried to achieve a new reading of the concept of man. Aristotle considers the concept of wisdom or Logos to be the foundation ...
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By analyzing the story "Report to the Academy" by Franz Kafka and considering it in the context of Aristotle's and Heidegger's views on the explanation of man, this research has tried to achieve a new reading of the concept of man. Aristotle considers the concept of wisdom or Logos to be the foundation of human beings; he repeatedly states this opinion in his three important works, namely "Politics", "Ethics of Nicomachus" and "Poetry". Although Aristotle's opinion has been accepted in the history of thought, this does not mean that others are trying to explain new readings that did not come from humans. One of these thinkers is Martin Heidegger. In the article "Language", Heidegger, while dealing with the nature of language, also explores the nature of man. According to this research, Aristotle's emphasis on the originality of wisdom or logos on the one hand and Heidegger's interpretation of man as a linguist being on the other hand, can lead us to a new point of view. Based on this, wisdom and language are neither completely different nor completely similar. These two concepts can be used to complement each other. By referring to Kafka's story, this approach is clearly visible. Human nature is nothing but the harmony of wisdom and language.
meisam zandigoharrizi; Lotfollah Nabavi
Abstract
Future Contingency has been an old debate between philosophers throughout history. On one hand, Aristotle thinks events of the future happen contingently. On the other hand, Diodorus believes what happens in the future is now determined. Diodorus has presented an argument for determinism based on a few ...
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Future Contingency has been an old debate between philosophers throughout history. On one hand, Aristotle thinks events of the future happen contingently. On the other hand, Diodorus believes what happens in the future is now determined. Diodorus has presented an argument for determinism based on a few premises. Logicians and philosophers try to avoid determinism by denying the first premise of Diodorus, which is the necessity of the past. However, they only regard a qualified version of this premise based on the medieval argument for determinism while some other philosophers consider this premise in a general way. A new argument shall be presented in this paper for determinism similar to the medieval one based on the general version of the premise which is not rejected by systems which reject the medieval argument. This flaw originates in a few properties of the branching model for time. We shall show what this property is and how it would be possible to resolve the problem this property creates.
Yassaman Hoshyar
Abstract
According to some interpretations, Aristotle's metaphysics is not a coherent and unified work and does not follow a single issue; in other words, in each two or three books a subject is introduced as a subject of metaphysics. ; For example, in the fourth book, Aristotle refers to a new phrase “being ...
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According to some interpretations, Aristotle's metaphysics is not a coherent and unified work and does not follow a single issue; in other words, in each two or three books a subject is introduced as a subject of metaphysics. ; For example, in the fourth book, Aristotle refers to a new phrase “being qua being” and in the seventh book, he used the term “Ousia” as the subject of this episteme. In this paper, we try to clarify Aristotle's view of these terms, as well as their relationship with each other, and also with other concepts that play an essential role in Aristotle's metaphysics (such as the concept of essence and form). In this way, it becomes clear whether an alternative interpretation can be presented to show that Aristotle has been able to establish a new episteme with a new and unique subject in this book and has been able to respond to the difficulties of the Beta book (aporia of Beta) as a the guideline of Metaphysics. By concentrating on four books of Metaphysics (I, III, IV, and VII), this article tries to investigate the above items and show Aristotle's innovations in some positions, as well as some aspects of his philosophical differentiation of Plato's philosophy.
kazem Hani; Reza Soleyman heshmat
Abstract
The prevalent conception about Plato’s philosophy is that, by differentiating sensible things from the realm of Ideas, he has made a step toward establishing Metaphysics. From Plato’s viewpoint, ideas form the essences of sensible things. Ideas are the condition of both the existence of sensible ...
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The prevalent conception about Plato’s philosophy is that, by differentiating sensible things from the realm of Ideas, he has made a step toward establishing Metaphysics. From Plato’s viewpoint, ideas form the essences of sensible things. Ideas are the condition of both the existence of sensible things and their recognition. Now, considering this original ontology and epistemology, some important issues arise: how do sensible things relate to Ideas? To what extent is Aristotle’s viewpoint regarding the separation of Ideas and sensible things acceptable? What effect does the existence of Ideas have on our conception regarding human beings (Dasein) and her/his practical life? In this paper, we attempt to consider these questions from the viewpoint of two German philosophers, namely Martin Heidegger and Hans Georg Gadamer. While Heidegger believes that Plato by proposing the doctrine of ideas began oblivion of truth in the meaning of unhiddenness and disconcealment and also resulted in the oblivion of Being, Gadamer believes that Heidegger’s interpretation of Plato and the whole history of Metaphysics was under the influence of Aristotle’s criticism. On the one hand, consulting to dialogues of Plato, Gadamer clearly explains the relation of ideas and sensible things but on the other hand, he emphasizes that the Good while being transcendence and concealment is present in all of our actions.
Faezeh Nourian; Najmeh Shobeiri
Abstract
“Path of perfection”, one of the most famous concepts and terms in mysticism, has been derived from a conceptual domain formed in relation to the meaning of walking or passing. As if they really thought of this process as a path that exists. Also, the word "camino" in Spanish means road, ...
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“Path of perfection”, one of the most famous concepts and terms in mysticism, has been derived from a conceptual domain formed in relation to the meaning of walking or passing. As if they really thought of this process as a path that exists. Also, the word "camino" in Spanish means road, and that is the beginning of the subscriptions between these two literary styles. In this context, there is a metaphorical notion around the concept which is consistent with the notion of mystical conduct. Eventually, they both refer to the concept of the “creed”. Other terms including “moradas” have the same structure. "Morada" literally means residence and refers to the place where we choose to stay. But in mystical terms, it means the stage that the mystics choose: a way to “transcendency”. Hence, it is quite compatible with the concept of “Manzel” which means residences “on the way”. Three major grades of Spanish mysticism that are known as “Path of Perfection” can be a departure point in a comparative approach to Mystic studies in Iran and Spain and further investigations of these concepts and senses. Accordingly, this paper gives examples from the biography of Santa Teresa de Jesus and Abu-Saeed Abulkhair. From this point of view, due to the subscription in their lifetime, mortifications, thoughts, doctrines, creed, and their unique incorporations between poetry and ascetics, this paper aims to characterize an aspect in resemblance of these mystical methods.
Narges Nazarnezhad; Maryam Asgari
Abstract
The current paper is on applied philosophy and is the outcome of an interdisciplinary philosophy and management research project. The paper advocates the presupposition that philosophy may help managers of organizations improve the efficiency and profitability of the collections under their control by ...
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The current paper is on applied philosophy and is the outcome of an interdisciplinary philosophy and management research project. The paper advocates the presupposition that philosophy may help managers of organizations improve the efficiency and profitability of the collections under their control by providing services to them. The paper's claims are examined on three levels: renowned philosophers' ideas, various philosophical skills, and philosophical character and spirit. The traits of leaders from Aristotle's perspective are explored at the first level. The effects of critical thinking and rhetoric on managers are examined on the second level. Several successful managers-philosophers are introduced on the third level. In the end, the findings of this study demonstrate the necessity of interdisciplinary studies and applying philosophy, as well as the identification of organizational problems that philosophy may help to solve. The research's primary data is gathered by the library method, and the research method is rational data analysis.
Roqayeh Mazaheri; Shahin Aawani
Abstract
From Kant’s view, freedom is the universal property of humans as the autonomy of will. He established morals on the ground of freedom through legislation of Practical Reason. In Kant’s philosophy, freedom is a ground, based on which humans have dignity as an individual and human beings. The ...
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From Kant’s view, freedom is the universal property of humans as the autonomy of will. He established morals on the ground of freedom through legislation of Practical Reason. In Kant’s philosophy, freedom is a ground, based on which humans have dignity as an individual and human beings. The concept of freedom is conjunct with moral law and practical reason and is not found in the scope of nature. The moral law being freedom in a sense elevates humans from the scope of nature and gives them value and dignity, which is based on freedom and autonomy. A moral human creates value for the world, and human is the end of creation. The Intermediator of human relationship as a moral being and the end of nature is the freedom concept. This article is written concentrating on Kant’s view of “The relationship between dignity and humans freedom”. Freedom is neither an objective matter nor the subject of cognition because the concept of freedom is related to the rational world and is realized in the behavior and disposition of humans. Everything has a price or dignity in the land of ends. Whatever has a price could be traded, but what is more valuable than any value and has no equivalent whatsoever is dignity. The humanity of humans is the only being that has “dignity” as long as it is capable of having morality.
philosophy
Seyed Amir Ali Mousavian
Abstract
The inappropriate use of "cause" in the translation of Aition and transferring the conceptual and metaphysical content of active cause to other causes, especially the ultimate cause, has caused misinterpretations and misunderstanding of this concept. If the relationship between cause and explanation ...
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The inappropriate use of "cause" in the translation of Aition and transferring the conceptual and metaphysical content of active cause to other causes, especially the ultimate cause, has caused misinterpretations and misunderstanding of this concept. If the relationship between cause and explanation is not taken into account, there will be confusion between the meaning of cause in the new philosophy and Aitia, which is caused by not taking into account the difference between "view to fact" and the mind, or the distinction between proof and evidence. In this article, the why and how to enumerate the Aristotelian causes and the ontological and epistemological strains of the relationship between cause and explanation are discussed from his point of view. The reason for Aristotle's fourfold classification of causes and the understanding of the causal relationship should be found based on the category of change and movement or the relationship between the creator and the artifact. The role of change and movement can be considered as the foundation of the natural analysis of causality based on the teachings of physics and metaphysics, in parallel with Aristotle's theory of causality in secondary analyzes based on the concepts of the middle ground of evidential analogy and general causal innateness. It is possible to consider the cause as a type of explanation or as a part of the explanation known as the causal explanation in such a way that it is both an explanation and an explanation of the cause.
zeinab salari; Ebrahim Azadegan
Abstract
Epistemological orthodoxy is a purist one in the sense that it permits only truth-related factors to be relevant to whether or not true belief amounts to knowledge. Contrary to this orthodoxy, ‘Pragmatic Encroachment’ argues that embracing fallibilism we must concede that in addition to truth-related ...
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Epistemological orthodoxy is a purist one in the sense that it permits only truth-related factors to be relevant to whether or not true belief amounts to knowledge. Contrary to this orthodoxy, ‘Pragmatic Encroachment’ argues that embracing fallibilism we must concede that in addition to truth-related factors, there are pragmatic conditions on knowledge mainly in what is at stake for us in our practical situation. Independent of fallibilism there is also a positive case for ‘Pragmatic Encroachment’ to be made namely a principled argument for a pragmatist link between knowledge and action (KJ). What you know is warranted enough to justify you in both action and belief. KJ is defended on the basis of two premises on reasons, and when combined with fallibilism, it entails the denial of purism. This may seem counterintuitive; thus, theories like epistemic contextualism and subject-sensitive invariantism have tried to combine purism and the intuitions concerning pragmatic encroachment. This endeavor, as we shall show, is without success. Critical reflections on pragmatic encroachment are based for the most part on its relation with belief, including certain conceptions of outright belief and degrees of confidences or credences in graded belief. In contrast to what these reflections aim at, pragmatic encroachment is not reducible to a pragmatic account of belief. Bearing in mind above considerations, it may turn out that the denial of purism is not as much counterintuitive at it may seem.
Ahmad Sharafshahi; Ali Akbar Ahmadi Aframjani
Abstract
Wittgenstein in his later Philosophy, as in his early Philosophy, reiterates that philosophical method or activity is a critical activity although he develops it method in his later Philosophy. In some fragments of Philosophical Investigations, he calls this method therapeutic, in which, the philosopher ...
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Wittgenstein in his later Philosophy, as in his early Philosophy, reiterates that philosophical method or activity is a critical activity although he develops it method in his later Philosophy. In some fragments of Philosophical Investigations, he calls this method therapeutic, in which, the philosopher recognizes the cause of fallacy or categorical mistake. Establishing such a method has been possible through a new vision of language, which does not see language as apart from linguistic activities. In other words, concepts have internal relation with our linguistic activities and our life-with-concepts, and their meanings are not graspable separate from their context. Indeed, by concentration on "use" in language, Wittgenstein wants to show the interrelation of language and our form of life. In Wittgenstein’s view, philosophical problems arise of neglecting this insight about language because philosophers see language separate and abstracted from any activity. By considering Wittgenstein’s revolutionary approach to language, philosophical problems arise from ignoring and confusing the uses of language, which will be dissolved with showing the confusion.
mahdi ganjvar
Abstract
The problem of "immortality" - as an innate thing - can be studied from various aspects: revelatory, mystical, intellectual and philosophical. In this paper, Spinoza's conception of soul and immortality is critically analyzed while drawing on the principles of transcendental Philosophy. Spinoza, like ...
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The problem of "immortality" - as an innate thing - can be studied from various aspects: revelatory, mystical, intellectual and philosophical. In this paper, Spinoza's conception of soul and immortality is critically analyzed while drawing on the principles of transcendental Philosophy. Spinoza, like Sadr al-Muta'llehin, believes in immortality of soul; but they differ by the fact that Spinoza denies, on the one hand, the substantiality of the soul and, on the other hand, believes that immortality is non-inclusive and acquired. Therefore, the acquisition of immortality for Spinoza is conditioned by gaining some qualifications and removal of some obstacles. Accordingly, only those souls experience immortality who are qualified by certain terms. Mulla Sadra, however, believes that immortality is genetic and essential for the soul, and therefore includes every single one.
The conception and explanation of how immortality is acquired and how it relates to human happiness in Spinoza, compared with the view of Mulla Sadra, constitutes the most part of the paper. The method of this research is descriptive-analytic with critical approach.
philosophy
Hooman Mohammad Ghorbanian
Abstract
According to the asymmetrical view that has its roots in Aristotelian philosophy, there is a close correspondence between syntactic categories and ontological categories, and the reference of the subject term and predicate term belong to different ontological types of objects. This asymmetry is defended ...
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According to the asymmetrical view that has its roots in Aristotelian philosophy, there is a close correspondence between syntactic categories and ontological categories, and the reference of the subject term and predicate term belong to different ontological types of objects. This asymmetry is defended by Frege and his philosophy of language in a different way. On the other hand, some believe in a symmetrical interpretation of subject and predicate relation. Suppose there was no ontological difference between the subject and predicate. In that case, we could have neutral language in which we can change the position of the subject and predicate terms without any change in the proposition's meaning. However, as we show in this paper, this language would be syntactically inconsistent and produce some contradictions. Moreover, the scientific generalizations would become nonsense in semantic analysis, and all the existential sentences would be true. Therefore, the neutral language does not have the expected adequacy, and the symmetry of the subject and predicate could not be defended accordingly
Mehdi Mohammadi; Asghar Vaezi
Abstract
Tabatabai and Motahari consider Sadra's philosophy to be a realistic philosophy and claim a kind of realism in the book "Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism". Ilham Dilman also believes that Wittgenstein's rejection of realism does not make him an idealist. Rather, Wittgenstein is also ...
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Tabatabai and Motahari consider Sadra's philosophy to be a realistic philosophy and claim a kind of realism in the book "Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism". Ilham Dilman also believes that Wittgenstein's rejection of realism does not make him an idealist. Rather, Wittgenstein is also considered a realist in a sense. This article examines and compares the realism proposed in "Principles..." on the one hand and the realism that Dillman attributes to Wittgenstein on the other hand.
